Introduction 

Traditional agriculture includes management practices that have evolved through centuries to create agricultural systems adapted to local environmental and cultural conditions. Owing to their nature, traditional systems do not use synthetic agricultural inputs. Many but not all, traditional systems fully meet the population standards for organic agriculture. Conventional agriculture, on the other hand is a system that is intensive and uses synthetic agricultural inputs. Conventional agriculture has proven to cause a number of problems such as loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, inefficient utilization of water, human health problems emanating from the use of pesticides, antibiotics and GMOs’ herbicides and agrochemicals.
Organic agriculture has been given many explanations and definitions but all refer to it as a system that relies on ecosystem management rather than external agricultural inputs. It is a system that takes into account potential environmental and social impacts and therefore eliminates the use of synthetic inputs, such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, veterinary drugs, genetically modified seeds and breeds, preservatives, additives and irradiation. These are replaced with site-specific management practices that maintain and increase long-term soil fertility and prevent pest and diseases.
According to FAO (2002) the term “Organic agriculture” refers to a process that uses methods considered to be environment-friendly from the production stages through handling and processing. Organic production is not merely concerned with a product, but also with the whole system used to produce and deliver the product to the ultimate consumer.

The modern organic agriculture movement evolved in developed countries, mostly in temperate regions. Now, with growing interest in organic cultivation as a management method for agricultural production in tropical and subtropical countries, greater attention needs to be given to developing standards and guidelines for organic agriculture applicable to tropical products and ecosystems. Motivation for converting to organic management can include market demand, lack of access to inputs, environmental concerns, social concerns or personal philosophy. In addition, farmers’ production targets need to be considered in terms of both quantity and quality, weighing the costs of production against the expected returns. Clear and objective information about both the potential and the constraints of organic agriculture is essential for any farmer considering conversion.

Organic Agriculture - The Concept

Organic agriculture has its roots in traditional agricultural practices that evolved in countless villages and farming communities over the millennia. By trial-and-error local farmers passed their best results from generation to generation. The modern face of organic agriculture emerged in the late 1960s, when farmers and consumers began to recognize that the enormous amount of chemicals being used in both crop and animal production could have dire consequences for the earth and its people.

Characteristics of Organic Agriculture
Organic agriculture has a number of distinct characteristics. These features determine the driving forces behind the growth in organic production and sales. These features can be summarized in the following:

● Organic agriculture is a process-oriented, rather than a product-oriented, production system;
● The organic agriculture process involves significant constraints that raise costs of production and marketing;
● Consumers buy organic products mainly for the perceived health, food safety and environmental benefits.

Driving Forces
Three different driving forces can be identified for organic agriculture:

a) Consumer or market-driven organic agriculture

Products are clearly identified through certification and labeling. Consumers take a conscious decision on how their food is produced, processed, handled and marketed. The consumer therefore has a strong influence over organic production.

b) Service-driven organic agriculture

In countries such as in the European Union (EU), subsidies for organic agriculture are available to generate environmental goods and services, such as reducing groundwater pollution or creating a more biologically diverse landscape.

c) Farmer-driven organic agriculture

Some farmers believe that conventional agriculture is unsustainable and have developed alternative modes of production to improve their family health, farm economies and/or self-reliance. In many developing countries, organic agriculture is adopted as a method to improve household food security or to achieve a reduction of input costs. Produce is not necessarily sold on the market or is sold without a price distinction as it is not certified. In developed countries, small farmers are increasingly developing direct channels to deliver non-certified organic produce to consumers. In the United States of America (USA), farmers marketing small quantities of organic products are formally exempt from certification.

It is important to distinguish certified from non-certified organic agriculture. Agriculture that meets organic standards, but is not subject to organic inspection, certification and labeling is referred to as “non-certified organic agriculture” as distinguished from “certified organic agriculture”. While economic and institutional conditions differ, both rely on the same technology and principles. An organic farm reflects an international system in which a producer manages resources according to organic principles. Non-certified organic agriculture therefore includes traditional systems that do not use chemicals but which apply ecological approaches to enhance agricultural production.

According to FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (1999),"Organic agriculture is a holistic production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It emphasizes the use of management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, where possible, agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using synthetic materials, to fulfill any specific function within the system."

Environmental Benefits of Organic Agriculture
Organic agriculture has many benefits to the components of the environment that lead to sustainability. Some of these benefits include:
 Sustainability over the long term
 Soil
 Water
 Air
 Biodiversity
 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
 Ecological services
International regulatory regimes

Two main sources of general principles and requirements apply to organic agriculture at the international level:

1-Codex Alimentarius

Codex Alimentarius applies for the production, processing, labeling and marketing of organically produced foods. The primary goal of organic agriculture, according to Codex, is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission is a joint creation of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) to implement the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The main objectives of this are:

(a) Protecting the health of the consumers and ensuring fair practices in the food trade;
(b) Promoting coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non governmental organizations;
(c) Determining priorities and initiating and guiding the preparation of draft standards through and with the aid of appropriate organizations;
(d) finalizing standards elaborated as above and, after acceptance by governments, publishing them in a Codex Alimentarius either as regional or world wide standards, together with international standards already finalized by other bodies, wherever this is practicable;
(e) Amending published standards, after appropriate survey in the light of developments.

The Codex has proved to be an important means of harmonising standards with a view to satisfying consumers of different countries. Nevertheless, it is true that the standards so specified often mean a substantial increase in costs of cultivation/processing/distribution, which in turn tends to increase concentration in this sphere of economic activity. It is hard for agricultural small holders to meet or to prove that they meet such standards.

2. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM)

IFOAM is a private sector international body with some 750 members' organizations in over 100 countries. IFOAM defines and regularly reviews, in consultation with its members, the basic standards that shape the organic term.

IFOAM Organic Principles
The guiding worldwide principles for organic agriculture are defined by the International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) and are detailed below:
• To produce food of high nutritional quality in sufficient quantity;
• To interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and cycles;
• To encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system involving micro organisms, soil flora and fauna, plants and animals;
• To maintain and increase long-term fertility of soils;
• To promote the healthy use and proper care of water, water resources and all life therein;
• To help in the conservation of soil and water;
• To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems;
• To work, as far as possible, within a closed system with regard to organic matter and nutrient elements;
• To work, as far as possible, with materials and substances that can be reused or recycled, either on the farm or elsewhere;
• To give all livestock conditions of life which allow them to perform basic aspects of their innate behavior;
• To minimize all forms of pollution that may result from agricultural practice;
• To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural system and its surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats;
• To allow everyone involved in organic production and processing a quality of life conforming to the UN Human Rights Charter, to cover their basic needs and obtain an adequate return and satisfaction from their work, including a safe working environment;
• To consider the wider social and ecological impact of the farming system;
• To produce non-food products out of renewable resources, which are fully biodegradable;
• To encourage organic farming associations to function along democratic lines and the principle of division of powers; and
• To progress towards an entire organic production chain, that is both socially just and ecologically responsible.
Many of the abovementioned ambitions are equally applicable to non-organic food production and manufacture.

Regulations

The rapid growth of organic agriculture production and trade has been accompanied by an increase in governmental regulations. Regulations assist in:
- establishing rules for organic farmers and processors through standards;
- giving credibility to certification bodies through approval and supervision;
- protecting consumers against mislabeling and fraud through conformity and surveillance, and
- Facilitating trade through equivalence agreements with export countries.

Regulations usually include provisions that further promote organic agriculture such as support to research, production and marketing.

Certification

Organic agriculture systems and products are not always certified and are referred to as "non-certified organic agriculture or products". This excludes agriculture systems that do not use synthetic inputs by default (e.g. systems that lack soil building practices and degrade land).

Certified organic products
Certified organic products are those which have been produced, stored, processed, handled and marketed in accordance with precise technical specifications (standards) and certified as "organic" by a certification body. Once conformity with organic standards has been verified by a certification body, the product is afforded a label. This label will differ depending on the certification body but can be taken as an assurance that the essential elements constituting an "organic" product have been met from the farm to the market. It is important to note that an organic label applies to the production process, ensuring that the product has been produced and processed in an ecologically sound manner. The organic label is therefore a production process claim as opposed to a product quality claim. In turn the certifying bodies are controlled by the government to ensure they do their job effectively. For example, there are currently nine different certification bodies in the UK, and each has a different symbol. The symbols you will see most frequently on UK-produced organic food are those of The Soil Association, Organic Farmers & Growers and the Organic Food Federation.
Non-certified organic products

In many developing countries, there are agricultural systems that fully meet the requirements of organic agriculture but which are not certified. Non-certified organic agriculture refers to organic agricultural practices by intent and not by default; this excludes non-sustainable systems which do not use synthetic inputs but which degrade soils due to lack of soil building practices. It is difficult to quantify the extent of these agricultural systems as they exist outside the certification and formal market systems. The produce of these systems is usually consumed by households or sold locally (e.g. urban and village markets) at the same price as their conventional counterparts. Although the uncertified produce does not benefit from price premiums, some cases have been documented where non-certified organic agriculture increases productivity of the total farm agro-ecosystem, and saves on purchasing external inputs. In developed countries, non-certified organic food is often sold directly to consumers through local community support programs such as box schemes, farmers markets and at the farm gate. These allow the producer to know exactly what the consumer wants, while the consumer knows where the produce comes from and in the case of box schemes, saves on transport costs through delivery of produce to their homes. In developed countries, non-certified organic produce usually carries a higher price than its conventional counterpart, in accordance with the specific consumer willingness to pay.

Labeling
An organic label indicates that a product has been certified against specific organic standards. The label carries the name of the certification body and the standards with which it complies, (e.g. EU 2092/91). To the informed consumer, this label can function as a guide. Certification bodies evaluate operations according to different organic standards and can be formally recognized by more than one authoritative body. The label of a given certification body, therefore, informs the consumer on the type of standards complied with during production and processing as well as on the type of recognition granted to the certification body. Many certification bodies operate worldwide, most of which are private and originate in developed countries.
Currently, in most of supermarkets or organic food shops there is diversity of organic labeling on display. Organic food doesn't always taste different to non-organic and appearance is no guide to organic quality. Therefore, the label provides the information if only the consumer can decode it. Exactly how organic food is labeled is closely controlled by law. Consumers can buy organic food safe in the knowledge that product labeling is checked before the food goes on sale. Checking is the job of the organic certification body, an organization that exists to ensure that organic farmers and producers follow the rules in producing their organic products.
By law every product must carry a description that the product is organic as part of its title. Bearing in mind that the word organic describes a method of production it should be said "Potatoes that have been organically grown" or "Potatoes Produced under Organic Standards". Most producers use the simpler "Organic Potatoes" as the product name, but somewhere in the small-print the consumer should find one of these more precise descriptions.
Organic foods must meet one of the recognized standards with regard to the materials used in packaging and labeling. Materials must be recyclable, where possible, and carry the appropriate organic accreditation symbol. In addition, although it is not a legal requirement, organic products should strive to avoid all unnecessary packaging.
Standards
Organic standards are enforced by organic certification authorities. If is in doubt, one can check the packaging and look for a logo belonging to one or another authorities.
All suppliers must be licensed in order to use the word "organic" in the product title. The term "organic" is a legally recognized term, the use of which is governed by trading standards legislation. The principles can be briefly summarized as follows:
• If 95% or more organic ingredients are used, the product may be called organic in the title.
• If between 70-95% of the ingredients used are organic, then the term "organic" may only be used in the ingredients listing.
• If less that 70% of the ingredients are organic, then the term "organic" may not be used anywhere on the product packaging.
In addition, one can recognize organic produce by the use of logos from accrediting bodies, such as OFF and SOPA in UK or by the EU license code number printed on the packaging.
If you are buying food that is not packaged, but that is still called "organic" on the shop shelf, loose apples for example, the shop must be able to show you proof of organic certification if you ask for it.
International voluntary standards
At the international level the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (the inter-governmental body that sets standards for all foods) has produced international guidelines for production; processing, labeling and marketing of organically produced foods to guide producers and to protect consumers against deception and fraud. These guidelines have been agreed upon by all member states of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The private sector's equivalent to the Codex Alimentarius guidelines is the International Basic Standards for Organic Production and Processing, created by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements - IFOAM. Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM guidelines include accepted management principles for the production of plants, livestock, bees and their products (IFOAM makes provisions also for fibers, aquaculture and non-wood forest products); for handling, storage, processing, packaging and transportation of products, and a list of substances permitted in the production and processing of organic foods. These guidelines are regularly reviewed, particularly the criteria for permitted substances and the process by which inspection is carried out and certification held.
Scope of the IFOAM Basic Standards
The Basic Standards reflect the current state of organic production and processing methods. These standards should not be seen as a final statement, but rather as a work in progress to contribute to the development of organic farming throughout the world.
The IFOAM Basic Standards cannot be used for certification on their own. They provide a framework for certification bodies/ standardizing organizations world-wide to develop their own certification standards. These will take into account local conditions and may well be more detailed than the IFOAM Basic Standards.
When products are sold on the market using an organic label, the producer and processors must work within, and be certified by certification bodies, according to standards which meet or exceed the IFOAM Basic Standards. This requires a system of regular inspection and certification. Such certification will ensure the credibility of organic products and help to build consumer trust.
The requirements of the IFOAM Basic Standards shall be implemented by certification bodies/ standardizing organizations. However, requirements that are not relevant for the conditions under which the standards are used do not need to be incorporated.
The IFOAM Basic standards are also used in the IFOAM Accreditation process. In evaluating a certification body for IFOAM Accreditation, The International Organic Accreditation Service evaluates the standards used against the IFOAM Basic Standards, and the certifiers’ performance against the IFOAM Accreditation Criteria.
The IFOAM Basic Standards are presented as General Principles, Recommendations and Standards. The General principles are the goals organic production and processing works towards. The Recommendations provide standards which IFOAM promotes but does not require. The Standards are the minimum requirements which must be fully incorporated into certification standards. Revision of the Basic Standards
The IFOAM Basic Standards (IBS) are developed by the IFOAM Standards Committee (SC) in close co-operation and consultation with the IFOAM member organizations and other interested parties.
National mandatory standards
The Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM guidelines are minimum standards for organic agriculture, intended to guide governments and private certification bodies in standard setting. As such, they can be considered as standards for standards. Governments can use these texts to develop national organic agriculture program which are often more detailed as they respond to specific country needs. Most national standards (e.g. EU countries, Japan, Argentina, India, Tunisia, USA), are specified in regulations which are legally binding.
Local voluntary standards

In some countries (e.g. Germany), individual certification bodies may produce their own standards which can be more stringent than the regulation in force, usually in response to specific consumer demands. Although these are not legally enforceable, private certifiers may be more restrictive than is required by law.

Accreditation
Accreditation is a procedure by which an authoritative body evaluates and gives formal recognition that a certification program is in accordance with the standards of the authoritative body. For organic agriculture, certification bodies can apply the voluntary international standards and/or the national mandatory standards and be accredited by the related "authority". At international level, the International Organic Accreditation Service (IOAS) accredits certification bodies according to IFOAM Accreditation Program criteria by delivering the "IFOAM Accredited" logo. IOAS is an independent NGO which ensures global equivalency of certification programs and attempts to harmonize standards, whilst taking into consideration local differences. It must be noted that membership of IFOAM by certifying bodies does not constitute IOAS accreditation. At national level, governments or national accreditation bodies accredit certification bodies operating in their country, if their country has organic agriculture legislation. Both private and public bodies adhere to the International Organization for Standardization basic standards for accreditation of certifiers (ISO 65) in addition to their specific requirements.
Experiences from around the globe
Europe
Development of organic agriculture was slow before the 1980s and it was driven by grassroots organizations, farmers and traders. In the United States, the states of Oregon and California adopted organic legislation in 1974 and 1979, respectively. In all other parts of the world, it took a long time before the standards established by the organic agriculture community (e.g. the Soil Association in the United Kingdom in 1967, FOAM in 1980) were echoed by national legislation and control systems (e.g. France adopted legislation in 1985 and 1991 marked the adoption of the European Union Regulation no. 1092/91).
France
In contrast with other European countries, organic agriculture in France developed furthest in the 1980s, particularly in areas of quality level of the products, number of organic farms and level of information amongst the population. The first standards for organic agriculture were published in 1972 by the producers’ association Nature & Progrès. Legislation on organic agriculture was passed in 1981. The state logo for organic products, the AB-Logo (Agriculture Biologique), was launched in 1985. This high level of state recognition led to the wide acceptance of organic agriculture in France and across its borders and at the time France was the most important European supplier for organic products, and 40 per cent of the European organic land was located in France.
Spain
Organic farming in Spain began at the end of the 1970's, with small farms, and it was basically promoted by young people coming from the cities. Spanish organic farming has shown a slow but steady growth in the course of its development. The introduction of the state legislation on organic farming was in 1995, and the CAP support measures for the producer sector were introduced later than in the rest of Europe - in some regions only in 1997. Since a substantial increase in the number of growers and land under organic farming has taken place. After the introduction of the support payments for organic farming in the last five years, a speeding-up was observed. The number of organic farms has increased twelve-fold between 1994 and 1999, and the number of processing companies more than trebled. During the same period the organically farmed surface rose from 17,208.9 ha to 388.031 hectares (1.6 % of the agricultural land).
In (2002) there were 15.607 producers (1,5 % of all farms) and 914 processing companies. There were 16.521 operators (farmers, processors, importers). 485.087,87 ha (nearly 2 % of the total cultivated agricultural area) were under organic management. The average size for an organic farm (28 ha) is higher than in conventional farming (18 ha). Approximately 80 % of the typical Mediterranean crops, which are organically grown, are exported, mostly to central and northern European countries, especially in the winter season.
The first "pioneer" organic farmers were either strongly motivated, and they made contracts for such products for which traders, normally from other countries (France, Germany or United Kingdom), could guarantee a market.
Today the organic farming sector is more complex, characterized by a highly diversified production in all regions. More conventional farmers are converting to organic farming. They are better organized and have more information available than the "old" organic farmers, because conventional farmers organizations now have organic sections providing support.
Currently in some cases organic farming represents the most realistic economic alternative to conventional agriculture so that more young farmers decide to stay in the rural areas.
According to a recent study profound changes are taking place in the sector for organic foods in Spain. From being an emergent market with low sales and few competitors, the sector is now entering the growth phase. In 2003 the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAPA), presented a National Organic Farming Action Plan draft. The Plan contains an 8-point program for the period 2004 to 2006, including issues such as modernization measures, the setting up of processing firms and consumer information. The dynamic growth of organic agriculture in Spain has made such a plan necessary and this has been demanded by the organic sector for a long time.

Latin America

Costa Rica

In Costa Rica the government offices in charge of organic agriculture are the Department of Accreditation and Registry of Organic Agriculture (DARAO) which is responsible for legislation and implementation and the National Organic Agriculture Program (PNAO) that deals with promotion and support. They both fall within the auspices of the Direction of Phytosanitary Protection of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock.

Ten thousand “campesinos” in Mexico have sound incomes and good perspectives for the future because they grow organic products such as coffee and sell it in the fairy trade and organic market.

Africa
In much of Africa, international and national NGOs, in partnership with donors and the private sector, have been responsible for the development of the formal organic sector and for bringing the benefits of organic agriculture to the farmers. The achievements in the last decade have been significant as African farmers and development workers search for alternatives to the unsustainable industrial agricultural approach. Dominated by smallholder traditional subsistence farmers, the continent has not benefited very much from industrial agricultural approaches to agriculture. Numerous reasons for the failure of the industrial agricultural approach in smallholder farming systems have been identified. These include the unsuitable climatic and soil conditions; high illiteracy rates resulting in farmers being unable to read and follow instructions on how to use inorganic inputs; inputs of uncertain quality; ineffective extension approaches; poor infrastructure and inefficient input distribution systems; high costs of inorganic inputs; and the rain fed character of Africa's agriculture farming systems. Whatever the reasons for the failure, many African farmers have remained loyal to the long tested traditional agriculture practices, adopting and adapting conventionally-developed technologies to fit into their farming systems. This has resulted in dynamic farming systems that combine traditional farming technologies and practices with what is best from conventionally-developed technologies. It is these types of traditional farming systems that render themselves to rapid organic conversion.

North Africa

Egypt

The Egyptian Center of Organic Agriculture (ECOA) is a control body in the field of inspection and certification of organic products in Egypt and abroad. In Egypt, Bio Farms grow and export organic table grapes and oranges. There are several non-profit NGOs whose members are from the scientific community, organic growers, organic farmers association, environmental activists and organic agriculture experts. Funded in 1977, the SEKEM initiative is a biodynamic farm north-east of Cairo. Products are fresh/frozen/dried vegetables/fruits/herbs/spices, cereals, flakes as well as herbal drinks.

Tunisia

Organic agriculture is relatively new in Tunisia. It started in the eighties (80’s) with private initiatives. It had a slow evolution until 1997 but the last four years were characterized by a high increase in area, number of farmers, and crop diversification. This important development was the result of policies supporting this sector underlined in a national strategy supervised by the National Commission for Organic Agriculture. The reference legislation in Tunisia is IFOAM Basic Guidelines, EEC and Tunisian regulations. Issuing a national regulation started April 1999 and the complete national regulatory framework was ready by the end of the year 2001.

Sub-Saharan Africa
The use of agro-chemicals was widespread among farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with only a minority of farmers practicing unimproved traditional subsistence agriculture. There was little evidence of knowledge and adoption of improved soil fertility management and crop protection practices of a non-chemical nature. Although isolated techniques are sometimes practiced, there was a general lack of an integrated approach to soil fertility and crop protection management, and under-exploitation of the full range of techniques that would maximize the benefits of locally available natural resources. Wholly organic agriculture was unlikely to be adopted without one or more of the following: active government policy supporting organic agriculture; producer demand to farm organically for philosophical, religious, scientific, intuitive, environmental or health reasons; or economic incentive in the form of subsidy or premium price for organic produce.
Kenya
In Kenya, there is Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF) which deals with conservation and management of resources for environment and development, sustainable agriculture and training of different farmers' organizations and other interested people.
Tanzania
The Global Service Corps (GSC) sustainable agriculture program in Tanzania offers participants opportunities to learn about organic farming methods while living with local families. Participants work with Tanzanian community groups and non-governmental organizations to initiate small-scale organic agriculture projects in the Arusha region.
Uganda

In Uganda, for example, about thirty thousand farmers practice organic agriculture in producing Cotton, Sesame, Coffee and their daily food.

South Africa

In South Africa, for example, there is the Organic Agriculture Association for South Africa (OAASA) serves to promote and enhance organic agricultural practices, to increase the awareness of sustainable farming methods and to assist in the recognition of the natural relationship between soil, plant, animal and mankind

Asia

Several Asian countries such as China, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines have a developed organic agriculture. The Philippines organic agriculture has become a successful alternative solution to the problems created by the green revolution. (world market)
Philippine National Standards Specification for Organic Agriculture was initially prepared by the Organic Certification Center of the Philippines (OCCP) and was adopted by the Department of Agriculture through the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS). The BAFPS Technical Committee on Crops and Livestock subjected these organic agriculture standards to a series of Technical Reviews and Public Consultations. After each technical review the corresponding revision was made particularly, in the conversion, crop production and livestock segment of the standard. These Standards for Organic Agriculture have been prepared for the purpose of providing a uniform approach to the requirements, which is the basis of the following: conversion to organic agriculture, crop production, livestock, processing, special products, labeling and consumer information.
2001.
Organic agriculture and the developing countries
There is a strong progress of organic agriculture in developing countries as organic agriculture holds promise in many of these countries. However, there are benefits as well as constraints both in production and trade.
Persisting world hunger has demonstrated that agriculture alone, whether or not it is conventional, cannot alone solve food insecurity. Still, many questions are asked with regards to the ability of organic agriculture to provide food - and many speculations are made, without any comprehensive data basis. No global evaluation on the contribution of organic agriculture to food security exists, essentially due to the small place it occupies within the agriculture sector as a whole. Projections are also difficult to make due to lack of data, lack of a common model for data collection and analysis, as well as rapid changes in agricultural technology and development policies.

Organic agriculture and Sudan
Traditional farming is the dominant mode of agricultural production in Sudan. Most of the production comes from the rainfed sector where the use of chemicals is uncommon. In this context it could be thought that conversion to organic agriculture could be made possible in certain areas of the country where land, water and labor are available. In addition, there are many plants and animals that are unique and endemic and whose products can be in demand if processed organically. These products can be oils, medicines, gums and resin, beverages, and meat.
Even though the government of Sudan is motivated to go into organic agriculture, there are presently several constraints. Some of these constraints are summarized below:
There is lack of awareness among farmers about organic products.
Awareness and eventually local demand for organic goods is not yet developed (in either the producer or the consumer).
Institutional arrangements for organic agriculture are non-existing. Processing capacity is only partial and insufficient for most products and quality control and internal control system are lacking. Equipment and technology are inadequate. There is lack of know-how and experience in processing. Trading channels and practices are traditional and informal. Information on potential foreign markets is not available and marketing prospects are not known in Sudan. Infrastructure and transportation costs from local production areas to consumption areas are high.

Bibliography
FAO Inter-departmental working group on Organic Agriculture www.FAO.org
FAO-Genetically Modified Organisms, Consumers, Food Safety and the Environment. www.FAO.org
FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999. www.FAO.org
Michel, R. Ecocert International http://www.ecocert.de/
Victor, G. P. Sociedad Española de Agricultura Ecologica (SEAE), http://www.agroecologia.net/t/
Wanda, S. http://www.soel.de/

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